The Dependency Divide: An Interpretable Machine Learning Framework for Profiling Student Digital Satisfaction in the Bangladesh Context

Abstract

Background: While digital access has expanded rapidly in resource-constrained contexts, satisfaction with digital learning platforms varies significantly among students with seemingly equal connectivity. Traditional digital divide frameworks fail to explain these variations. Purpose: This study introduces the "Dependency Divide", a novel framework proposing that highly engaged students become conditionally vulnerable to infrastructure failures, challenging assumptions that engagement uniformly benefits learners in post-access environments. Methods: We conducted a cross-sectional study of 396 university students in Bangladesh using a three-stage analytical approach: (1) stability-validated K-prototypes clustering to identify student profiles, (2) profile-specific Random Forest models with SHAP and ALE analysis to determine satisfaction drivers, and (3) formal interaction analysis with propensity score matching to test the Dependency Divide hypothesis. Results: Three distinct profiles emerged: Casually Engaged (58%), Efficient Learners (35%), and Hyper-Engaged (7%). A significant interaction between educational device time and internet reliability (β = 0.033, p = 0.028) confirmed the Dependency Divide: engagement increased satisfaction only when infrastructure remained reliable. Hyper-Engaged students showed greatest vulnerability despite or because of their sophisticated digital workflows. Policy simulations demonstrated that targeted reliability improvements for high-dependency users yielded 2.06 times greater returns than uniform interventions. Conclusions: In fragile infrastructure contexts, capability can become liability. Digital transformation policies must prioritize reliability for dependency-prone users, establish contingency systems, and educate students about dependency risks rather than uniformly promoting engagement.

@article{fahim2026the,
  title   = {The Dependency Divide: An Interpretable Machine Learning Framework for Profiling Student Digital Satisfaction in the Bangladesh Context},
  author  = {Md Muhtasim Munif Fahim and Humyra Ankona and Md Monimul Huq and Md. Rezaul Karim},
  year    = {2026},
  journal = {arXiv preprint},
  eprint  = {2601.01231},
  archivePrefix = {arXiv},
  url     = {https://arxiv.org/abs/2601.01231},
}